Glossary
| 2D | two-dimensional |
| 3D | three-dimensional |
| 3D-ECT | 3-dimensional electrical capacitance tomography |
| a-Si | amorphous silicon |
| a-Si:H | hydrogenated amorphous silicon |
| AA | ascorbic acid |
| AAS | atomic absorption spectrometry |
| ABSS | aqueous biphasic solvent system |
| AC | alternating current |
| acac | acetylacetonate |
| ADNC | automated direct nucleation control |
| AEL | alkaline electrolyser |
| AEM | anion-exchange membrane |
| AES | Auger electron spectroscopy |
| AFC | alkaline fuel cell |
| AFM | atomic force microscopy |
| ALD | atomic layer deposition |
| AMLCD | active-matrix liquid-crystal display |
| AP-XPS | ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
| API | active pharmaceutical ingredient |
| APPES | ambient pressure photoelectron spectroscopy |
| APT | atom probe tomography |
| at% | atomic per cent |
| atm | atmosphere |
| ATR | autothermal reforming |
| ATR-FTIR | attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared |
| ATR-UV | attenuated total reflectance ultraviolet |
| AZO | aluminium-doped zinc oxide |
| bcc | body-centred cubic |
| BET | Brunauer, Emmett and Teller |
| BINAP | 2,2'-bis(diphenylphosphino)-1,1'-binaphthyl |
| bipy | bipyridine |
| BMEP | brake mean effective pressure |
| Bn | benzyl |
| BOC | butoxycarbonyl |
| BPM | bipolar membrane |
| BS | Bharat Stage |
| BSE | backscattered electron |
| BSFC | brake specific fuel consumption |
| BTE | brake thermal efficiency |
| BTEX | benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene |
| BTX | benzene, toluene and xylene |
| Bz | benzoyl |
| c-EGR | cooled exhaust gas recirculation |
| CAD | computer aided design |
| CALPHAD | calculation of phase diagrams |
| CAPEX | capital expenditure |
| CARB | California Air Resources Board |
| CCC | counter-current chromatography |
| CCD | charge coupled device |
| CCS | carbon capture and storage |
| CCU | carbon capture and utilisation |
| CCUS | carbon capture, utilisation and storage |
| CDC | continuous direct compression |
| CF | conformity factor |
| CFD | computational fluid dynamics |
| CHP | combined heat and power |
| CI | cetane index; confidence interval |
| CIDNP | chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarisation |
| CIJR | confined impinging jets reactor |
| CM | cross metathesis |
| CMC | carboxymethyl cellulose |
| CMOS | complementary metal-oxide semiconductor |
| CN | cetane number |
| CNT | carbon nanotube |
| CO-TPD | carbon monoxide temperature-programmed desorption |
| CO2e | carbon dioxide equivalents |
| cod | cycloocta-1,5-diene |
| CP-MAS | cross polarisation-magic angle spinning |
| CPC | centrifugal partition chromatography |
| CPP | critical process parameters |
| CR | combined reforming, with steam methane reforming and autothermal reforming; compression ratio |
| CRGO | chemically reduced graphene oxide |
| CSF | catalysed soot filter |
| CT | computed tomography |
| CTE | coefficient of thermal expansion |
| CTEM | conventional transmission electron microscopy |
| CV | cyclic voltammetry |
| CVD | chemical vapour deposition |
| CXT | computed X-ray tomography |
| DA | dopamine |
| dba | dibenzylideneacetone |
| DBFC | direct borohydride fuel cell |
| DBN | 1,5-diazabicyclo[5.3.0]non-5-ene |
| DBU | 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene |
| DC | direct current |
| DEFC | direct ethanol fuel cell |
| DEM | discrete element method |
| DFT | density functional theory |
| DIOP | 2,3-O-isopropylidene-2,3-dihydroxy-1,4-bis(diphenylphosphino)butane |
| DLS | dynamic light scattering |
| DMA | dimethylacetamide |
| DMAP | 4-dimethylaminopyridine |
| DME | dimethoxyethane |
| DMF | N,N-dimethylformamide |
| DMFC | direct methanol fuel cell |
| DMSO | dimethyl sulfoxide |
| DOC | diesel oxidation catalyst |
| DoD | drop on demand |
| DOI | Digital Object Identifier |
| DOS | density of states |
| DPF | diesel particulate filter |
| DPH | dispersion hardening |
| dppf | 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene |
| dr | diastereomeric ratio |
| DRAM | dynamic random access memory |
| DRIFTS | diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy |
| DSC | differential scanning calorimetry |
| DSSC | dye-sensitised solar cell |
| DTA | differential thermal analysis |
| DtBPF | 1,1ʹ-bis(di-tert-butylphosphino)ferrocene |
| EBID | electron beam induced deposition |
| EC | electrocatalyst; ethylene carbonate |
| ECVT | electrical capacitance volume tomography |
| EDS | energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy |
| EDX | energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy |
| ee | enantiomeric excess |
| EELS | electron energy loss spectroscopy |
| EI | emissions index |
| emf | electromotive force |
| EMPA | electron microprobe analysis |
| EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
| EPMA | electron probe microanalysis |
| EPR | electron paramagnetic resonance |
| ERGO | electrochemically reduced graphene oxide |
| ESCA | electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis |
| ESR | electron spin resonance |
| Et | ethyl |
| EtOH | ethanol |
| EUDC | Extra-Urban Drive Cycle |
| EV | electric vehicle |
| EXAFS | extended X-ray absorption fine structure |
| FA | furfuryl alcohol |
| FBRM | focused beam reflectance measurement |
| FC | fuel cell |
| fcc | face-centred cubic |
| FCC | fluidised catalytic cracking |
| FCNT | fuel-cut NOx trap |
| FEM | field emission spectroscopy |
| FIB | focused ion beam |
| FID | flame ionisation detector |
| FSFT | field sweep Fourier transform |
| FSP | flame spray pyrolysis |
| FTIR | Fourier transform infrared |
| FTP | Federal Test Procedure |
| g | gram |
| GBL | γ-butyrolactone |
| GC | gas chromatography |
| GC-MS | gas chromatography-mass spectrometry |
| GCE | glassy carbon electrode |
| GDCI | gasoline direct injection compression ignition |
| GDE | gas diffusion electrode |
| GDI | gasoline direct injection |
| GDL | gas diffusion layer |
| GHG | greenhouse gas |
| GHR | gas heated reforming |
| GHSV | gas hourly space velocity |
| GNDA | graphene nanodots array |
| GO | graphene oxide |
| GPF | gasoline particulate filter |
| GQD | graphene quantum dots |
| GrF | graphene foam |
| GS | graphene sheet |
| GVL | γ-valerolactone |
| GZO | gallium-doped zinc oxide |
| h | hour |
| HAADF−STEM | high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy |
| HAMR | heat-assisted magnetic recording |
| HAXPES | hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
| HC | hydrocarbon |
| HCCI | homogeneous charge compression ignition |
| hcp | hexagonal close-packed |
| HD | heavy duty |
| HDA | hydrodearomatisation |
| HDD | hard disk drive; heavy-duty diesel |
| HDN | hydrodenitrogenation |
| HDO | hydrodeoxygenation |
| HDS | hydrodesulfurisation |
| HER | hydrogen evolution reaction |
| HEV | hybrid electric vehicle |
| HIP | hot isostatic pressing |
| HMF | 5-hydroxymethylfurfural |
| HPA | heteropoly acids |
| HPLC | high-performance liquid chromatography |
| HR-SEM | high-resolution scanning electron microscopy |
| HR-TEM | high-resolution transmission electron microscopy |
| HREELS | high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy |
| HRXRD | high-resolution X-ray diffraction |
| HTWGS | high temperature water gas shift |
| HwFET | Highway Fuel Economy Test |
| IC | internal combustion |
| ICE | internal combustion engine |
| ICP-MS | inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry |
| ICP-OES | inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry |
| ICPES | inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry |
| ID | internal diameter |
| IETS | inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy |
| IFPBT | iterative filtered back projection technique |
| IgG | immunoglobulin G |
| IL | ionic liquids |
| ILBP | iterative linear back projection |
| INS | inelastic neutron scattering |
| IR | infrared |
| ISS | ion scattering spectroscopy |
| ITO | indium tin oxide |
| IXS | inelastic X-ray scattering |
| JM | Johnson Matthey |
| JMTC | Johnson Matthey Technology Centre |
| kg | kilogram |
| L-DOPA | L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine |
| LA | levulinic acid |
| laser | light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation |
| LBP | linear back projection |
| LCA | life cycle assessment |
| LCD | liquid crystal display |
| LCFS | low carbon fuel standard |
| LCO | light cycle oil |
| LD | light-duty |
| LDA | lithium diisopropylamide |
| LEC | light-emitting electrochemical cell |
| LED | light-emitting diode |
| LEED | low-energy electron diffraction |
| LEV | low emission vehicle |
| LFP | lithium iron phosphate |
| LHSV | liquid hourly space velocity |
| LIB | Lithium-ion battery |
| LLE | liquid-liquid extraction |
| LLZO | Li7La3Zr2O12 |
| LMR | longitudinal magnetic recording |
| LNT | lean NOx trap |
| LTGCI | low-temperature gasoline compression ignition |
| LTO | lithium titanate, Li4Ti5O12 |
| M15 | 15% methanol and 85% gasoline fuel blend |
| MAMR | microwave-assisted magnetic recording |
| MAS | magic angle spinning |
| MBTE | methyl tertiary-butyl ether |
| MCFC | molten carbonate fuel cell |
| mCHP | micro combined heat and power |
| MCR-ALS | multivariate curve resolution alternating least squares |
| Me | methyl |
| MEA | membrane electrode assembly; monoethanolamine |
| MeOH | methanol |
| Mes | mesyl |
| MFC | microbial fuel cell |
| MILP | mixed-integer linear programming model |
| MLCC | multi-layer ceramic capacitor |
| MLCT | metal-to-ligand charge transfer |
| MNC | mesoporous N doped carbon |
| MnO2NR | manganese oxide nanoribbons |
| MOCVD | metalorganic chemical vapour deposition |
| MOF | metal-organic framework |
| mol% | mole per cent |
| MOSFET | metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor |
| MPC | model predictive control |
| mpg | miles per gallon |
| mph | miles per hour |
| MPV | Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley |
| MRAM | magnetoresistive random access memory |
| MRI | magnetic resonance imaging |
| MS | mass spectrometry |
| MSM | metal-semiconductor-metal |
| MSMPR | mixed-suspension mixed-product removal |
| MSR | methanol steam reforming |
| MSZW | metastable zone width |
| mtpd | metric tonnes per day |
| MWCNT | multiwalled carbon nanotube |
| MWNT | multiwalled nanotube |
| n/a | not applicable or not available |
| NA | naturally aspirated |
| NAND | not and |
| NAP-HE-XPS | near-ambient pressure high energy X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
| NAP-XPS | near ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
| NCM | nickel cobalt manganese |
| NCNF | N doped carbon nanofibers |
| NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
| NEP | noise equivalent power |
| NEXAFS | near edge X-ray absorption fine structure |
| NGF | N doped graphene fibres |
| NGr | nitrogen-doped graphene |
| NHCS | N doped hollow carbon spheres |
| NHE | normal hydrogen electrode |
| NHPC | N doped hierarchically porous carbon |
| NHTSA | National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |
| NICS | nucleus-independent chemical shift |
| NIR | near-infrared |
| NMC | nickel manganese cobalt |
| NMHC | non-methane hydrocarbon |
| NMOG | non-methane organic gas |
| NMR | nuclear magnetic resonance |
| NN-MOIRT | neural-network multi-criterion optimisation image reconstruction technique |
| NOR | not or |
| NOx | nitrogen oxides |
| NPs | nanoparticles |
| NSC | NOx storage catalyst |
| NSR | NOx storage reduction |
| o-Tol | ortho-tolyl |
| ODS | oxide dispersion strengthened |
| OEM | original equipment manufacturer |
| OER | oxygen evolution reaction |
| OLED | organic light-emitting diode |
| OMOM | methoxymethoxy |
| OPEX | operational expenditure |
| ORR | oxygen reduction reaction |
| OSBL | outside battery limits |
| OSC | oxygen storage capacity |
| P2G | power-to-gas |
| P2L | power-to-liquids |
| P2X | power-to-X |
| PAFC | phosphoric acid fuel cell |
| PAH | polyaromatic hydrocarbons |
| PAT | process analytical technology; phosphinothricin acetyltransferase |
| PBM | population balance model |
| PbP | pixel-by-pixel |
| PBROM | physics-based reduced-order model |
| PC | propylene carbonate |
| PCA | principal component analysis |
| PCE | polynomial chaos expansion |
| PDA | poly(dopamine) |
| PDC | polymer derived ceramics |
| PDDA | poly(diallyldimethylammonium)chloride |
| powder diffraction; portable document format | |
| PDL | pumped dye laser |
| PE | polyethylene |
| PECVD | plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition |
| PEEK | polyether ether ketone |
| PEEM | photoemission electron microscopy |
| PEFC | polymer electrolyte fuel cell |
| PEM | proton exchange membrane; polymer-electrolyte membrane |
| PEMFC | proton exchange membrane fuel cell or polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell |
| PEMS | portable emissions monitoring system |
| PES | photoelectron spectroscopy |
| PFA | perfluoroalkoxy |
| PFI | port fuel injected |
| PGE | platinum group element; porous graphene electrode |
| pgm | platinum group metal: platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium or osmium |
| PGM | platinum group mineral |
| Ph | phenyl |
| PHEV | plug-in hybrid electric vehicle |
| PID | proportional-integral-derivative |
| PIV | particle image velocimetry |
| PLD | pulsed laser deposition |
| PLIF | planar laser induced fluorescence |
| PLL | poly-L-lysine |
| PLS | partial least squares |
| PM | particulate matter |
| PMMA | polymethyl methacrylate |
| PMR | perpendicular magnetic recording; Platinum Metals Review |
| PN | particulate number |
| poly-Si | polycrystalline silicon |
| poly(Cu-AMT) | polymerised copper-2-amino-5-mercapto-1,3,4 thiadiazole complex |
| ppb | parts per billion |
| ppm | parts per million |
| ppmC | parts per million carbon |
| ppmv | parts per million by volume |
| PPV | poly(p-phenylvinylene) |
| ppy | 2-phenylpyridine |
| PROX | preferential CO oxidation |
| PS | polystyrene |
| PSE | process systems engineering |
| psi | pounds per square inch |
| PTFE | polytetrafluoroethylene |
| PTL | porous transport layer |
| PV | photovoltaic |
| PVC | poly(vinyl chloride) |
| PVD | physical vapour deposition |
| PVM | particle vision and measurement |
| PVP | poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) |
| PXRD | powder X-ray diffraction |
| py | pyridine |
| PZEV | partial zero emissions vehicle |
| QbD | quality by design |
| R&D | research and development |
| RCM | ring-closing metathesis |
| RDE | Real-world Driving Emissions; rotating disc electrode |
| rf | radiofrequency |
| RGO | reduced graphene oxide |
| RHE | reversible hydrogen electrode |
| RIXS | resonant inelastic X-ray scattering |
| ROMP | ring-opening metathesis polymerisation |
| RON | research octane number |
| rpm | revolutions per minute |
| RRS | resonance Raman spectroscopy |
| RS | Raman spectroscopy |
| RT | room temperature |
| RTD | residence time distribution |
| RWGS | reverse water gas shift |
| RXES | resonant x-ray emission spectroscopy |
| S-Fc | ferrocene thiolate |
| s-SNOM | scattering type scanning near-field optical microscopy |
| SANS | small-angle neutron scattering |
| SAR | silica to alumina ratio |
| SAXS | small angle X-ray spectroscopy |
| scCO2 | supercritical carbon dioxide |
| SCR | selective catalytic reduction |
| SE | secondary electron |
| SEHS | spin echo height spectroscopy |
| SEI | solid electrolyte interphase |
| SEIS | spin echo integration spectroscopy |
| SEM | scanning electron microscopy |
| SEM-EDS | scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy |
| SERS | surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy |
| SFTP | Supplemental Federal Test Procedure |
| SHE | standard hydrogen electrode |
| SIMS | secondary ion mass spectroscopy |
| SM | shape memory |
| SMA | shape memory alloy |
| SMR | steam methane reforming |
| SMSI | strong metal-support interaction |
| SNR | signal-to-noise ratio |
| SOC | state of charge |
| SOEL | solid oxide electrolyser |
| SOFC | solid oxide fuel cell |
| SOx | sulfur oxides |
| SPCE | screen printed carbon electrode |
| SPEFC | solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell |
| SPEL | solid polymer electrolyser |
| SPFC | solid polymer fuel cell (also known as PEMFC) |
| SQUIDS | superconducting quantum interference devices |
| SRAM | static random access memory |
| SRS | simulated Raman spectroscopy |
| SSD | solid state drive |
| SSNMR | solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance |
| STEM | scanning transmission electron microscopy |
| STM | scanning tunnelling microscopy |
| STXM | scanning transmission X-ray microscopy |
| SULEV | super ultra low emission vehicle |
| SUV | sport utility vehicle |
| TAR | thermally-assisted magnetic recording |
| TBAF | tetrabutyl ammonium fluoride |
| TBDPS | tert-butyldiphenylsilyl |
| TBS | tert-butyldimethylsilyl |
| TCD | thermal conductivity detector |
| TCE | trichloroethylene |
| TCO | transparent conducting oxides |
| TEM | transmission electron microscopy |
| TES | triethylsilyl |
| TFA | trifluoroacetic acid |
| TFT | thin-film transistors |
| TGA | thermogravimetric analysis |
| THC | total hydrocarbon |
| THF | tetrahydrofuran |
| TIG | tungsten inert gas |
| TIPS | triisopropylsilyl ether |
| TLC | thin layer chromatography |
| TM | transition metal; trade mark (if superscript) |
| TMB | transition metal boride |
| TMEDA | tetramethylethylenediamine |
| tmp | tetramethylpiperidine |
| TMP | transition metal phosphide |
| TMS | tetramethylsilane |
| TOF | turnover frequency |
| TOFMS | time of flight mass spectrometry |
| TON | turnover number |
| TPD | temperature-programmed desorption |
| TPO | temperature programmed oxidation |
| tpphz | tetrapyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c:3'',2''-h:2''',3'''-j]phenazine |
| TPR | temperature-programmed reduction |
| tpy | terpyridine |
| Tr | triphenylmethyl (trityl) |
| TRGO | thermally reduced graphene oxide |
| TRL | technology readiness level |
| TRL | technology readiness level |
| Ts | tosyl |
| TWC | three-way catalyst |
| TXM | transmission X-ray microscopy |
| UA | uric acid |
| UC | unified cycle |
| UHV | ultrahigh vacuum |
| ULEV | ultra low emission vehicle |
| UPS | ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy |
| UV | ultraviolet |
| UV-vis | ultraviolet-visible |
| VAM | vinyl acetate monomer |
| VCR | variable compression ratio |
| VLSI | very large scale integrated circuits |
| vol% | volume per cent |
| w/w | weight/weight |
| WAXS | wide-angle X-ray scattering |
| WDS | wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy |
| WE | water electrolysis |
| WGS | water gas shift |
| WLTC | World-Harmonised Light-Duty Test Cycle |
| WLTP | World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure |
| wt% | weight per cent |
| XANES | X-ray absorption near edge structure |
| XAS | X-ray absorption spectroscopy |
| XES | X-ray emission spectroscopy |
| Xides | transition metal borides, carbides, nitrides, phosphides and chalcogenides |
| XMCD | X-ray magnetic circular dichroism |
| XMLD | X-ray magnetic linear dichroism |
| XMT | X-ray micro-tomography |
| XPS | X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
| XRD | X-ray diffraction |
| XRF | X-ray fluorescence |
| XRT | X-ray tomography; X-ray microtomography |
| ZEV | zero emission vehicle |
| ZFO | zinc ferrite |
| ZGS | zirconia grain stabilised |