The Discoverers of the Rhodium Isotopes
Journal Archive
doi: 10.1595/147106711X555656
The Discoverers of the Rhodium Isotopes
The thirty-eight known rhodium isotopes found between 1934 and 2010
Article Synopsis
This is the fifth in a series of reviews on the circumstances surrounding the discoveries of the isotopes of the six platinum group elements. The first review on platinum isotopes was published in this Journal in October 2000 (1), the second on iridium isotopes in October 2003 (2), the third on osmium isotopes in October 2004 (3) and the fourth on palladium isotopes in April 2006 (4).
Naturally Occurring Rhodium
In 1934, at the University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory, Aston (5) showed by using a mass spectrograph that rhodium appeared to consist of a single nuclide of mass 103 (103Rh). Two years later Sampson and Bleakney (6) at Princeton University, New Jersey, using a similar instrument, suggested the presence of a further isotope of mass 101 (101Rh) with an abundance of 0.08%. Since this isotope had not been discovered at that time, its existence in nature could not be discounted. Then in 1943 Cohen (7) at the University of Minnesota used an improved mass spectrograph to show that the abundance of 101Rh must be less than 0.001%. Finally in 1963 Leipziger (8) at the Sperry Rand Research Center, Sudbury, Massachusetts, used an extremely sensitive double-focusing mass spectrograph to reduce any possible abundance to less than 0.0001%. However by that time 101Rh had been discovered (see
Table I) and although shown to be radioactive, no evidence was obtained for a long-lived isomer. This demonstrated conclusively that rhodium does in fact exist in nature as a single nuclide: 103Rh.
Artificial Rhodium Isotopes
In 1934, using slow neutron bombardment, Fermi et al. (9) identified two rhodium activities with half-lives of 50 seconds and 5 minutes. A year later the same group (10) refined these half-lives to 44 seconds and 3.9 minutes. These discoveries were said to be ‘non-specific’ since the mass numbers were not determined, although later measurements identified these activities to be the ground state and isomeric state of 104Rh, respectively. In 1940 Nishina et al. (11, 12), using fast neutron bombardment, identified a 34 hour non-specific activity which was later identified as 105Rh. In 1949 Eggen and Pool (13) confirmed the already known nuclide 101Pd and identified the existence of a 4.7 day half-life rhodium daughter product. They did not comment on its mass although the half-life is consistent with the isomeric state of 101Rh. Eggen and Pool also identified a 5 hour half-life activity which was never subsequently confirmed. Activities with half-lives of 4 minutes and 1.1 hours, obtained by fast neutron bombardment, were identified by Pool, Cork and Thornton (14) in 1937 but these also were never confirmed.
Although some of these measured activities represent the first observations of specific nuclides, the exact nuclide mass numbers were not determined and therefore they are not considered to represent actual discoveries. They are however included in the notes to Table I. The first unambiguous identification of a radioactive rhodium isotope was by Crittenden in 1939 (15) who correctly identified both 104Rh and its principal isomer. Nuclides where only the atomic number and atomic mass number were identified are considered as satisfying the discovery criteria.
Discovery Dates
The actual year of discovery is generally considered to be that when the details of the discovery were placed in the public domain, such as manuscript dates or conference report dates. However, complications arise with internal reports which may not be placed in the public domain until several years after the discovery, and in these cases it is considered that the historical date takes precedence over the public domain date. Certain rhodium isotopes were discovered during the highly secretive Plutonium Project of the Second World War, the results of which were not actually published until 1951 (16) although much of the information was made available in 1946 by Siegel (17, 18) and in the 1948 “Table of Isotopes” (19).
Half-Lives
Selected half-lives used in
Table I
are generally those accepted in the revised NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties in 2003 (20) although literature values are used when the NUBASE data are not available or where they have been superseded by later determinations.
Table I
The Discoverers of the Rhodium Isotopes
Mass numbera | Half-life | Decay modes | Year of discovery | Discoverers | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
89 | psb | EC + β+ ? | 1994 | Rykaczewski et al. |
21, 22 |
|
90 | 15 ms | EC + β+ | 1994 | Hencheck et al. |
23 |
A |
90m | 1.1 s | EC + β+ | 2000 | Stolz et al. |
24 |
A |
91 | 1.5 s | EC + β+ | 1994 | Hencheck et al. |
23 |
B |
91m | 1.5 s | IT | 2004 | Dean et al. |
25 |
B |
92 | 4.7 s | EC + β+ | 1994 | Hencheck et al. |
23 |
C |
92m | 0.5 s | IT? | 2004 | Dean et al. |
25 |
C |
93 | 11.9 s | EC + β+ | 1994 | Hencheck et al. |
23 |
D |
94 | 70.6 s | EC + β+ | 1973 | Weiffenbach, Gujrathi and Lee |
26 |
|
94m | 25.8 s | EC + β+ | 1973 | Weiffenbach, Gujrathi and Lee |
26 |
|
95 | 5.02 min | EC + β+ | 1966 | Aten and Kapteyn |
27 |
|
95m | 1.96 min | IT, EC + β+ | 1974 | Weiffenbach, Gujrathi and Lee |
28 |
|
96 | 9.90 min | EC + β+ | 1966 | Aten and Kapteyn |
27 |
|
96m | 1.51 min | IT, EC + β+ | 1966 | Aten and Kapteyn |
27 |
|
97 | 30.7 min | EC + β+ | 1955 | Aten and de Vries-Hamerling |
29 |
|
97m | 46.2 min | EC + β+, IT | 1971 | Lopez, Prestwich and Arad |
30 |
|
98 | 8.7 min | EC + β+ | 1955 | Aten and de Vries-Hamerling |
29 |
E |
98m | 3.6 min | EC + β+ | 1966 | Aten and Kapteyn |
31 |
|
99 | 16.1 d | EC + β+ | 1956 | Hisatake, Jones and Kurbatov |
32 |
F |
99m | 4.7 h | EC + β+ | 1952 | Scoville, Fultz and Pool |
33 |
|
100 | 20.8 h | EC + β+ | 1944 | Sullivan, Sleight and Gladrow |
34, 35 |
G |
100m | 4.6 min | IT, EC + β+ | 1973 | Sieniawski |
36 |
|
101 | 3.3 y | EC | 1956 | Hisatake, Jones and Kurbatov |
32 |
F |
101m | 4.34 d | EC, IT | 1944 | Sullivan, Sleight and Gladrow |
34, 37 |
G |
102 | 207.0 d | EC + β+, β− | 1941 | Minakawa |
38 |
|
102m | 3.742 y | EC + β+, IT | 1962 | Born et al. |
39 |
|
103 | Stable | – | 1934 | Aston |
5 |
|
103m | 56.114 min | IT | 1943 | (a) Glendenin and Steinberg (b) Flammersfeld |
(a) 40, 41 (b) 42 |
H |
104 | 42.3 s | β− | 1939 | Crittenden |
15 |
I |
104m | 4.34 min | IT, β− | 1939 | Crittenden |
15 |
I |
105 | 35.36 h | β− | 1944 | (a) Sullivan, Sleight and Gladrow (b) Bohr and Hole |
(a) 34, 43 (b) 44 |
J |
105m | 42.9 s | IT | 1950 | Duffield and Langer |
45 |
|
106 | 30.1 s | β− | 1943 | (a) Glendenin and Steinberg (b) Grummitt and Wilkinson (c) Seelmann-Eggebert |
(a) 40, 41 (b) 46 (c) 47 |
K |
106m | 2.18 h | β− | 1955 | Baró, Seelmann-Eggebert and Zabala |
48 |
L |
107 | 21.7 min | β− | 1954 | (a) Nervik and Seaborg (b) Baró, Rey and Seelmann-Eggebert |
(a) 49 (b) 50 |
M |
108 | 16.8 s | β− | 1955 | Baró, Rey and Seelmann-Eggebert |
50 |
N |
108m | 6.0 min | β− | 1969 | Pinston, Schussler and Moussa |
51 |
|
109 | 1.33 min | β− | 1969 | Wilhelmy et al. |
52, 53 |
|
110 | 28.5 s | β− | 1969 | (a) Pinston and Schussler (b) Ward et al. |
(a) 54 (b) 55 |
|
110m | 3.2 s | β− | 1963 | Karras and Kantele |
56 |
|
111 | 11 s | β− | 1975 | Franz and Herrmann |
57 |
|
112 | 3.4 s | β− | 1969 | Wilhelmy et al. |
52, 53 |
|
112m | 6.73 s | β− | 1987 | Äystö et al. |
58 |
|
113 | 2.80 s | β− | 1988 | Penttilä et al. |
59 |
|
114 | 1.85 s | β− | 1969 | Wilhelmy et al. |
52, 53 |
|
114m | 1.85 s | β− | 1987 | Äystö et al. |
58 |
|
115 | 990 ms | β− | 1987 | Äystö et al. |
60, 61 |
|
116 | 680 ms | β− | 1987 | Äystö et al. |
58, 60, 61 |
|
116m | 570 ms | β− | 1987 | Äystö et al. |
58, 60, 61 |
|
117 | 394 ms | β− | 1991 | Penttilä et al. |
62 |
|
118 | 266 ms | β− | 1994 | Bernas et al. |
63 |
O |
119 | 171 ms | β− | 1994 | Bernas et al. |
63 |
P |
120 | 136 ms | β− | 1994 | Bernas et al. |
63 |
Q |
121 | 151 ms | β− | 1994 | Bernas et al. |
63 |
P |
122 | psb | β− ? | 1997 | Bernas et al. |
64 |
|
123 | psb | β− ? | 2010 | Ohnishi et al. |
65 |
See Figures 1 and 2 |
124 | psb | β− ? | 2010 | Ohnishi et al. |
65 |
See Figures 1 and 2 |
125 | psb | β− ? | 2010 | Ohnishi et al. |
65 |
See Figures 1 and 2 |
126 | psb | β− ? | 2010 | Ohnishi et al. |
65 |
See Figures 1 and 2 |
A |
90Rh and 90mRh |
Hencheck et al. (23) only proved that the isotope was particle stable. Stolz et al. (24) in 2000 identified both the ground state and an isomer. The half-life determined by Wefers et al. in 1999 (66) appears to be consistent with the ground state. The discovery by Hencheck et al. is nominally assigned to the ground state. |
B |
91Rh and 91mRh |
Hencheck et al. (23) only proved that the isotope was particle stable. Wefers et al. (66) first determined a half-life in 1999 but Dean et al. (25) remeasured the half-life in 2004 and identified both a ground state and an isomer having identical half-lives within experimental limits. The discovery by Hencheck et al. is nominally assigned to the ground state. |
C |
92Rh and 92mRh |
Hencheck et al. (23) only proved that the isotope was particle stable. Wefers et al. (66) incorrectly determined the half-life in 1999 with more accurate values being determined by both Górska et al. (67) and Stolz et al. (24) in 2000. Dean et al. (25) showed that these determinations were for the ground state and not for the isomeric state which they also identified. The discovery by Hencheck et al. is nominally assigned to the ground state. |
D |
93Rh |
Hencheck et al. (23) only proved that the isotope was particle stable. Wefers et al. in (66) incorrectly measured the half-life in 1999 with more accurate values being obtained by both Górska et al. (67) and Stolz et al. (24) in 2000. |
E |
98Rh |
Aten et al. (68) observed this isotope in 1952 but could not decide if it was 96Rh or 98Rh. |
F |
99Rh and 101Rh |
Farmer (69) identified both of these isotopes in 1955 but could not assign mass numbers. |
G |
100Rh and 101mRh |
For these isotopes the 1944 discovery by Sullivan, Sleight and Gladrow (34) was not made public until its inclusion in the 1948 “Table of Isotopes” (19). |
H |
103mRh |
Although both Glendenin and Steinberg (40) and Flammersfeld (42) discovered the isomer in 1943 the results of Glendenin and Steinberg were not made public until their inclusion in the 1946 table compiled by Siegel (17, 18). |
I |
104Rh and 104mRh |
Both the ground state and isomer were first observed by Fermi et al. (9) in 1934 and by Amaldi et al. (10) in 1935 as non-specific activities. Pontecorvo (70, 71) discussed these activities in detail but assigned them to 105Rh. EC + β+ was also detected as a rare decay mode (0.45% of all decays) in 104Rh by Frevert, Schöneberg and Flammersfeld (72) in 1965. |
J |
105Rh |
For this isotope the 1944 discovery by Sullivan, Sleight and Gladrow (34) was not made public until its inclusion in the 1946 table of Siegel (17, 18). The isotope was first identified by Nishina et al. (11, 12) in 1940 as a non-specific activity. |
K |
106Rh |
The discovery by Glendenin and Steinberg (40) in 1943 was not made public until its inclusion in the 1946 table of Siegel (17, 18) and therefore the discovery of this isotope by both Grummitt and Wilkinson (46) and Seelmann-Eggebert (47) in 1946 are considered to be independent. |
L |
106mRh |
Nervik and Seaborg (49) also observed this isotope in 1955 but tentatively assigned it to 107Rh. |
M |
107Rh |
First observed by Born and Seelmann-Eggebert (73) in 1943 as a non-specific activity and also tentatively identified by Glendenin (74, 75) in 1944. |
N |
108Rh |
Although credited with the discovery, the claim by Baró, Rey and Seelmann-Eggebert (50) is considered to be tentative and a more definite claim to the discovery was made by Baumgärtner, Plata Bedmar and Kindermann (76) in 1957. |
O |
118Rh |
Bernas et al. (63) only confirmed that the isotope was particle stable. The half-life was first determined by Jokinen et al. (77) in 2000. |
P |
119Rh and 121Rh |
Bernas et al. (63) only confirmed that the isotopes were particle stable. The half-lives were first determined by Montes et al. (78) in 2005. |
Q |
120Rh |
Bernas et al. (63) only confirmed that the isotope was particle stable. The half-life was first determined by Walters et al. (79) in 2004. |
Fig. 1.
The superconducting ring cyclotron (SRC) in the Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory (RIBF) at the RIKEN Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science where the newest isotopes of palladium, rhodium and ruthenium were discovered (65) (Copyright 2010 RIKEN)
Dr Toshiyuki Kubo
Toshiyuki Kubo is the team leader of the Research Group at RIKEN. He was born in Tochigi, Japan, in 1956. He received his BS degree in Physics from The University of Tokyo in 1978, and his PhD degree from the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1985. He joined RIKEN as an Assistant Research Scientist in 1980, and was promoted to Research Scientist in 1985 and to Senior Research Scientist in 1992. He spent time at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory of Michigan State University in the USA as a visiting physicist from 1992 to 1994. In 2001, he became the team leader for the in-flight separator, dubbed ‘BigRIPS’, which analyses the fragments produced in the RIBF. He was promoted to Group Director of the Research Instruments Group at the RIKEN Nishina Center in 2007. He is in charge of the design, construction, development and operation of major research instruments, as well as related infrastructure and equipment, at the RIKEN Nishina Center. His current research focuses on the production of rare isotope beams, in-flight separator issues, and the structure and reactions of exotic nuclei.
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Supplementary Information
Content for ‘Division IV: The Plutonium Project’ can be accessed via the Hathi Trust Digital Library at: http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001114383 (Accessed on 22nd March 2011)