Skip to content
1887
Volume 60, Issue 2
  • ISSN: 2056-5135

Abstract

Small metallic nanoparticles used for polymer exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) represent a characterisation challenge. Electron microscopy would seem the ideal technique to analyse their structure at high resolution. However, their minute size and sensitivity to irradiation damage makes this difficult. In this review, the latest techniques for overcoming these limitations in order to provide quantitative structural and compositional information are presented, focusing specifically on quantitative annular dark-field (ADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and quantitative energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. The implications for the study of bimetallic fuel cell catalyst materials are also discussed.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1595/205651316X691186
2016-01-01
2024-12-07
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/jmtr/60/2/JMTR-60-2-MacArthur.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1595/205651316X691186&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

References

  1. A. V. Crewe, J. Wall, J. Langmore, Science , 1970,168, (3937), 1338 LINK http://www.jstor.org/stable/1730030 [Google Scholar]
  2. P. D. Nellist, S. J. Pennycook, Science, 1996, 274, (5286), 413 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5286.413 [Google Scholar]
  3. J. I. Goldstein, D. E. Newbury, P. Echlin, D. C. Joy, C. E. Lyman, E. Lifshin, L. Sawyer, J. R. Michael, “Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis”, 3rd Edn., Springer Science+Business Media, New York, USA, 2003 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0215-9 [Google Scholar]
  4. D. B. Williams, C. B. Carter, “Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Textbook for Materials Science”, 2nd Edn., Springer Science+Business Media, New York, USA, 2009 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-76501-3 [Google Scholar]
  5. A. P. Pogany, P. S. Turner, Acta Cryst. A, 1968, 24, 103 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0567739468000136 [Google Scholar]
  6. S. Lee, Y. Oshima, H. Sawada, F. Hosokawa, E. Okunishi, T. Kaneyama, Y. Kondo, S. Niitaka, H. Takagi, Y. Tanishiro, K. Takayanagi, J. Appl. Phys., 2011, 109, (11), 113530 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3592239 [Google Scholar]
  7. S. D. Findlay, S. Azuma, N. Shibata, E. Okunishi, Y. Ikuhara, Ultramicroscopy, 2011, 111, (4), 285 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2010.12.022 [Google Scholar]
  8. E. Okunishi, H. Sawada, Y. Kondo, Micron, 2012, 43, (4), 538 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2011.10.007 [Google Scholar]
  9. A. Howie, J. Microsc., 1979, 117, (1), 11 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.1979.tb00228.x [Google Scholar]
  10. A. Amali, P. Rez, Microsc. Microanal., 1997, 3, (1), 28 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927697970021 [Google Scholar]
  11. Z. W. Wang, Z. Y. Li, S. J. Park, A. Abdela, D. Tang, R. E. Palmer, Phys. Rev. B, 2011, 84, (7), 073408 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.84.073408 [Google Scholar]
  12. T. F. Budinger, R. M. Glaeser, Ultramicroscopy, 1976–1977, 2, 31 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(76)90263-1 [Google Scholar]
  13. O. Scherzer, Z. Phys., 1936, 101, (9), 593 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01349606 [Google Scholar]
  14. F. Haguenau, P. W. Hawkes, J. L. Hutchison, B. Satiat-Jeunemaître, G. T. Simon, D. B. Williams, Microsc. Microanal., 2003, 9, (2), 96 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927603030113 [Google Scholar]
  15. P. Xu, E. J. Kirkland, J. Silcox, R. Keyse, Ultramicroscopy, 1990, 32, (2), 93 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(90)90027-J [Google Scholar]
  16. O. L. Krivanek, N. Dellby, A. J. Spence, R. A. Camps, L. M. Brown, Electron Microsc. Anal., 1997, 153, 35 [Google Scholar]
  17. P. D. Nellist, M. F. Chisholm, N. Dellby, O. L. Krivanek, M. F. Murfitt, Z. S. Szilagyi, A. R. Lupini, A. Borisevich, W. H. Sides Jr., S. J. Pennycook, Science, 2004, 305, (5691), 1741 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1100965 [Google Scholar]
  18. H. Müller, S. Uhlemann, P. Hartel, M. Haider, Microsc. Microanal., 2006, 12, (6), 442 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927606060600 [Google Scholar]
  19. P. E. Batson, N. Dellby, O. L. Krivanek, Nature, 2002, 418, (6898), 617 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature00972 [Google Scholar]
  20. S. C. Anderson, C. R. Birkeland, G. R. Anstis, D. J. H. Cockayne, Ultramicroscopy, 1997, 69, (2), 83 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(97)00041-7 [Google Scholar]
  21. R. Darji, A. Howie, Micron, 1997, 28, (2), 95 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-4328(96)00053-4 [Google Scholar]
  22. M. J. Hÿtch, W. M. Stobbs, Ultramicroscopy, 1994, 53, (3), 191 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(94)90034-5 [Google Scholar]
  23. M. Retsky, Optik, 1974, 41, 127 [Google Scholar]
  24. M. S. Isaacson, D. Kopf, M. Ohtsuki, M. Utlaut, Ultramicroscopy, 1979, 4, (1), 101 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(79)90013-5 [Google Scholar]
  25. N. P. Young, Z. Y. Li, Y. Chen, S. Palomba, M. Di Vece, R. E. Palmer, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2008, 101, (24), 246103 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.246103 [Google Scholar]
  26. A. Singhal, J. C. Yang, J. M. Gibson, Ultramicroscopy, 1997, 67, (1–4), 191 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(96)00094-0 [Google Scholar]
  27. S. E. Maccagnano-Zacher, K. A. Mkhoyan, E. J. Kirkland, J. Silcox, Ultramicroscopy, 2008, 108, (8), 718 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2007.11.003 [Google Scholar]
  28. D. Van Dyck, M. Op de Beeck, Ultramicroscopy, 1996, 64, (1–4), 99 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(96)00008-3 [Google Scholar]
  29. H. E, K. E. MacArthur, T. J. Pennycook, E. Okunishi, A. J. D’Alfonso, N. R. Lugg, L. J. Allen, P. D. Nellist, Ultramicroscopy, 2013, 133, 109 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.07.002 [Google Scholar]
  30. E. Rotunno, M. Albrecht, T. Markurt, T. Remmele, V. Grillo, Ultramicroscopy, 2014, 146, 62 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.07.003 [Google Scholar]
  31. A. De Backer, G. T. Martinez, K. E. MacArthur, L. Jones, A. Béché, P. D. Nellist, S. Van Aert, Ultramicroscopy, 2015, 151, 56 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.11.028 [Google Scholar]
  32. K. E. MacArthur, A. J. D’Alfonso, D. Ozkaya, L. J. Allen, P. D. Nellist, Ultramicroscopy, 2015, 156, 1 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2015.04.010 [Google Scholar]
  33. R. F. Loane, E. J. Kirkland, J. Silcox, Acta Cryst. A, 1988, 44, 912 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/S0108767388006403 [Google Scholar]
  34. J. Hwang, J. Y. Zhang, A. J. D’Alfonso, L. J. Allen, S. Stemmer, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2013, 111, (26–27), 266101 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.266101 [Google Scholar]
  35. P. M. Voyles, D. A. Muller, E. J. Kirkland, Microsc. Microanal., 2004, 10, (2), 291 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927604040012 [Google Scholar]
  36. P. M. Voyles, J. L. Grazul, D. A. Muller, Ultramicroscopy, 2003, 96, (3–4), 251 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(03)00092-5 [Google Scholar]
  37. R. Ishikawa, A. R. Lupini, S. D. Findlay, T. Taniguchi, S. J. Pennycook, Nano Lett., 2014, 14, (4), 1903 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl500564b [Google Scholar]
  38. J. M. LeBeau, S. Stemmer, Ultramicroscopy, 2008, 108, (12), 1653 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2008.07.001 [Google Scholar]
  39. A. Rosenauer, K. Gries, K. Müller, A. Pretorius, M. Schowalter, A. Avramescu, K. Engl, S. Lutgen, Ultramicroscopy, 2009, 109, (9), 1171 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.05.003 [Google Scholar]
  40. Z. Yu, P. E. Batson, J. Silcox, Ultramicroscopy, 2003, 96, (3–4), 275 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(03)00093-7 [Google Scholar]
  41. H. E , ‘Quantitative Analysis of Core-Shell Nanoparticle Catalysts by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy’, DPhil Thesis, University of Oxford, UK, 2013 [Google Scholar]
  42. H. E, P. D. Nellist, S. Lozano-Perez, D. Ozkaya, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2010, 241, (1), 012067 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/241/1/012067 [Google Scholar]
  43. S. D. Findlay, J. M. LeBeau, Ultramicroscopy, 2013, 124, 52 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2012.09.001 [Google Scholar]
  44. K. E. MacArthur, L. B. Jones, P. D. Nellist, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2014, 522, 012018 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/522/1/012018 [Google Scholar]
  45. G. T. Martinez, L. Jones, A. De Backer, A. Béché, J. Verbeeck, S. Van Aert, P. D. Nellist, Ultramicroscopy, 2015, 159, (1), 46 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2015.07.010 [Google Scholar]
  46. J. M. LeBeau, S. D. Findlay, L. J. Allen, S. Stemmer, Nano Lett., 2010, 10, (11), 4405 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl102025s [Google Scholar]
  47. K. E. MacArthur, ‘Quantitative Structural and Compositional Characterisation of Bimetallic Fuel-Cell Catalyst Nanoparticles Using STEM’, DPhil Thesis, University of Oxford, UK, 2015 [Google Scholar]
  48. G. T. Martinez, A. De Backer, A. Rosenauer, J. Verbeeck, S. Van Aert, Micron, 2014, 63, 57 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2013.12.009 [Google Scholar]
  49. A. Rosenauer, T. Mehrtens, K. Müller, K. Gries, M. Schowalter, P. V. Satyam, S. Bley, C. Tessarek, D. Hommel, K. Sebald, M. Seyfried, J. Gutowski, A. Avramescu, K. Engl, S. Lutgen, Ultramicroscopy, 2011, 111, (8), 1316 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2011.04.009 [Google Scholar]
  50. D. T. Nguyen, S. D. Findlay, J. Etheridge, Ultramicroscopy, 2014, 146, 6 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.04.008 [Google Scholar]
  51. S. Van Aert, A. De Backer, G. T. Martinez, B. Goris, S. Bals, G. Van Tendeloo, A. Rosenauer, Phys. Rev. B, 2013, 87, (6), 064107 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.87.064107 [Google Scholar]
  52. V. Grillo, F. Rossi, Ultramicroscopy, 2013, 125, 112 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2012.10.009 [Google Scholar]
  53. A. Rečnik, G. Möbus, S. Šturm, Ultramicroscopy, 2005, 103, (4), 285 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2005.01.003 [Google Scholar]
  54. A. B. Yankovich, B. Berkels, W. Dahmen, P. Binev, S. I. Sanchez, S. A. Bradley, A. Li, I. Szlufarska, P. M. Voyles, Nature Commun., 2014, 5, 4155 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5155 [Google Scholar]
  55. L. Jones, H. Yang, T. J. Pennycook, M. S. J. Marshall, S. Van Aert, N. D. Browning, M. R. Castell, P. D. Nellist, Adv. Struct. Chem. Imaging., 2015, 1, 8 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40679-015-0008-4 [Google Scholar]
  56. A. J. den Dekker, S. Van Aert, A. van den Bos, D. Van Dyck, Ultramicroscopy, 2005, 104, (2), 83 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2005.03.001 [Google Scholar]
  57. S. Van Aert, J. Verbeeck, R. Erni, S. Bals, M. Luysberg, D. Van Dyck, G. Van Tendeloo, Ultramicroscopy, 2009, 109, (10), 1236 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.05.010 [Google Scholar]
  58. R. Erni, H. Heinrich, G. Kostorz, Ultramicroscopy, 2003, 94, (2), 125 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(02)00249-8 [Google Scholar]
  59. S. Van Aert, K. J. Batenburg, M. D. Rossell, R. Erni, G. Van Tendeloo, Nature, 2011, 470, (7334), 374 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09741 [Google Scholar]
  60. A. De Backer, G. T. Martinez, A. Rosenauer, S. Van Aert, Ultramicroscopy, 2013, 134, 23 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.05.003 [Google Scholar]
  61. D. J. De Rosier, A. Klug, Nature, 1968, 217, (5124), 130 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/217130a0 [Google Scholar]
  62. B. P. Flannery, H. W. Deckman, W. G. Roberge, K. L. D’Amico, Science, 1987, 237, (4821), 1439 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.237.4821.1439 [Google Scholar]
  63. N. Kawase, M. Kato, H. Nishioka, H. Jinnai, Ultramicroscopy, 2007, 107, (1), 8 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2006.04.007 [Google Scholar]
  64. C. Kübel, D. Niemeyer, R. Cieslinski, S. Rozeveld, Mater. Sci. Forum, 2010, 638–642, 2517 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.638-642.2517 [Google Scholar]
  65. M. Weyland, Top. Catal, 2002, 21, (4), 175 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021385427655 [Google Scholar]
  66. D. E. Jesson, S. J. Pennycook, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., 1995, 449, (1936), 273 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1995.0044 [Google Scholar]
  67. K. K. Nanda, A. Maisels, F. E. Kruis, H. Fissan, S. Stappert, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 91, (10), 106102 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.106102 [Google Scholar]
  68. A. J. Koster, U. Ziese, A. J. Verkleij, A. H. Janssen, K. P. de Jong, J. Phys. Chem. B., 2000, 104, (40), 9368 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp0015628 [Google Scholar]
  69. J. R. Jinschek, K. J. Batenburg, H. A. Calderon, R. Kilaas, V. Radmilovic, C. Kisielowski, Ultramicroscopy, 2008, 108, (6), 589 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2007.10.002 [Google Scholar]
  70. L. C. Gontard, R. E. Dunin-Borkowski, D. Ozkaya, T. Hyde, P. A. Midgley, P. Ash, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2006, 26, 367 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/26/1/089 [Google Scholar]
  71. G. Möbus, B. J. Inkson, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2001, 79, (9), 1369 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1400080 [Google Scholar]
  72. R. Grothausmann, S. Fiechter, R. Beare, G. Lehmann, H. Kropf, G. S. V. Kumar, I. Manke, J. Banhart, Ultramicroscopy, 2012, 122, 65 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2012.07.024 [Google Scholar]
  73. H. Friedrich, S. Guo, P. E. de Jongh, X. Pan, X. Bao, K. P. de Jong, ChemSusChem, 2011, 4, (7), 957 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201000325 [Google Scholar]
  74. S. Sueda, K. Yoshida, N. Tanaka, Ultramicroscopy, 2010, 110, (9), 1120 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2010.04.003 [Google Scholar]
  75. K. J. Batenburg, J. Sijbers, IEEE Trans. Image Process., 2011, 20, (9), 2542 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TIP.2011.2131661 [Google Scholar]
  76. S. Bals, M. Casavola, M. A. van Huis, S. Van Aert, K. J. Batenburg, G. Van Tendeloo, D. Vanmaekelbergh, Nano Lett., 2011, 11, (8), 3420 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl201826e [Google Scholar]
  77. L. Jones, K. E. MacArthur, V. T. Fauske, A. T. J. van Helvoort, P. D. Nellist, Nano Lett., 2014, 14, (11), 6336 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl502762m [Google Scholar]
  78. K. E. MacArthur, L. B. Jones, S. Lozano-Perez, D. Ozkaya, P. D. Nellist, ‘Quantification of Pt/Ir Catalyst Nanoparticles using ADF STEM’ in 18th International Microscopy Congress, Prague, Czech Republic, 7–12th September, 2014 [Google Scholar]
  79. K. E. MacArthur, T. J. A. Slater, S. J. Haigh, D. Ozkaya, P. D. Nellist, S. Lozano-Perez, Microsc. Microanal., 2016, 22, (1), 71 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927615015494 [Google Scholar]
  80. K. E. MacArthur, T. J. A. Slater, S. J. Haigh, D. Ozkaya, P. D. Nellist, S. Lozano-Perez, Mater. Sci. Technol., 2016, doi:10.1080/02670836.2015.1133021 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02670836.2015.1133021 [Google Scholar]
  81. V. Ortalan, A. Uzun, B. C. Gates, N. D. Browning, Nature Nanotechnol., 2010, 5, (12), 843 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2010.234 [Google Scholar]
  82. E. Carlino, V. Grillo, Phys. Rev. B., 2005, 71, (23), 235303 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.71.235303 [Google Scholar]
  83. V. Grillo, Ultramicroscopy, 2009, 109, (12), 1453 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.07.010 [Google Scholar]
  84. A. Rosenauer, K. Gries, K. Müller, M. Schowalter, A. Pretorius, A. Avramescu, K. Engl, S. Lutgen, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2010, 209, (1), 012009 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/209/1/012009 [Google Scholar]
  85. S. I. Molina, D. L. Sales, P. L. Galindo, D. Fuster, Y. González, B. Alén, L. González, M. Varela, S. J. Pennycook, Ultramicroscopy, 2009, 109, (2), 172 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2008.10.008 [Google Scholar]
  86. S. I. Molina, M. P. Guerrero, P. L. Galindo, D. L. Sales, M. Varela, S. J. Pennycook, J. Electron Microsc. (Tokyo), 2011, 60, (1), 29 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmicro/dfq078 [Google Scholar]
  87. D. Hernández-Maldonado, M. Herrera, P. Alonso-González, Y. González, L. González, J. Gazquez, M. Varela, S. J. Pennycook, M. de la Paz Guerrero-Lebrero, J. Pizarro, P. L. Galindo, S. I. Molina, Microsc. Microanal., 2011, 17, (4), 578 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927611000213 [Google Scholar]
  88. C. E. Lyman, J. Mol. Catal., 1983, 20, (3), 357 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-5102(83)80050-9 [Google Scholar]
  89. F. L. Deepak, G. Casillas-Garcia, R. Esparza, H. Barron, M. Jose-Yacaman, J. Cryst. Growth, 2011, 325, (1), 60 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.04.026 [Google Scholar]
  90. J. J. Friel, C. E. Lyman, Microsc. Microanal., 2006, 12, (1), 2 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927606060211 [Google Scholar]
  91. R. Prestvik, B. Tøtdal, C. E. Lyman, A. Holmen, J. Catal., 1998, 176, (1), 246 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jcat.1998.2025 [Google Scholar]
  92. J. M. Titchmarsh, Micron, 1999, 30, (2), 159 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-4328(99)00020-7 [Google Scholar]
  93. P. Lechner, C. Fiorini, R. Hartmann, J. Kemmer, N. Krause, P. Leutenegger, A. Longoni, H. Soltau, D. Stötter, R. Stötter, L. Strüder, U. Weber, Nucl. Instr. Methods Phys. Res. A., 2001, 458, (1–2), 281 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9002(00)00872-X [Google Scholar]
  94. H. S. von Harrach, P. Dona, B. Freitag, H. Soltau, A. Niculae, M. Rohde, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2010, 241, (1), 012015 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/241/1/012015 [Google Scholar]
  95. P. J. Phillips, T. Paulauskas, N. Rowlands, A. W. Nicholls, K.-B. Low, S. Bhadare, R. F. Klie, Microsc. Microanal., 2014, 20, (4), 1046 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614001639 [Google Scholar]
  96. L. J. Allen, A. J. D’Alfonso, B. Freitag, D. O. Klenov, MRS Bull., 2012, 37, (1), 47 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2011.331 [Google Scholar]
  97. M. Itakura, N. Watanabe, M. Nishida, T. Daio, S. Matsumura, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.,52, (5R), 050201 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/JJAP.52.050201 [Google Scholar]
  98. G. Kothleitner, M. J. Neish, N. R. Lugg, S. D. Findlay, W. Grogger, F. Hofer, L. J. Allen, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2014, 112, (8), 085501 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.085501 [Google Scholar]
  99. P. G. Kotula, D. O. Klenov, H. S. von Harrach, Microsc. Microanal., 2012, 18, (4), 691 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927612001201 [Google Scholar]
  100. T. J. A. Slater, P. H. C. Camargo, M. G. Burke, N. J. Zaluzec, S. J. Haigh, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 2014, 522, 012025 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/522/1/012025 [Google Scholar]
  101. D. T. Tran, I. P. Jones, J. A. Preece, R. L. Johnston, C. R. van den Brom, J. Nanoparticle Res., 2011, 13, (9), 4229 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-011-0367-2 [Google Scholar]
  102. G. Cliff, G. W. Lorimer, J. Microsc., 1975, 103, (2), 203 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.1975.tb03895.x [Google Scholar]
  103. M. Watanabe, D. B. Williams, Y. Tomokiyo, Micron, 2003, 34, (3–5), 173 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-4328(03)00028-3 [Google Scholar]
  104. M. Watanabe, D. B. Williams, J. Microsc., 2006, 221, (2), 89 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.2006.01549.x [Google Scholar]
  105. M. Watanabe, Z. Horita, M. Nemoto, Ultramicroscopy, 1996, 65, (3–4), 187 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3991(96)00070-8 [Google Scholar]
  106. M. Watanabe, D. W. Ackland, C. J. Kiely, D. B. Williams, M. Kanno, R. Hynes , H. Sawada, JEOL News, 2006, 41, (1), 2 [Google Scholar]
  107. D. B. Williams, A. J. Papworth, M. Watanabe, J. Electron Microsc., 2002, 51, S113 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmicro/51.Supplement.S113 [Google Scholar]
  108. C. E. Lyman, H. G. Stenger Jr., J. R. Michael, Ultramicroscopy, 1987, 22, (1–4), 129 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(87)90057-X [Google Scholar]
  109. A. A. Herzing, M. Watanabe, J. K. Edwards, M. Conte, Z.-R. Tang, G. J. Hutchings, C. J. Kiely, Faraday Discuss., 2008, 138, 337 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/B706293C [Google Scholar]
  110. J. Liu, J. Electron Microsc., 2005, 54, (3), 251 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmicro/dfi034 [Google Scholar]
  111. W. M. Skiff, R. W. Carpenter, S. H. Lin, A. Higgs, Ultramicroscopy, 1988, 25, (1), 47 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(88)90406-8 [Google Scholar]
  112. F. Hofer, Microsc. Microanal. Microstruct., 1991, 2, (2–3), 215 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/mmm:0199100202-3021500 [Google Scholar]
  113. R. F. Egerton, M. Malac, J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenomena, 2005, 143, (2–3), 43 LINK http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elspec.2003.12.009 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1595/205651316X691186
Loading
/content/journals/10.1595/205651316X691186
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Research Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test